32 Research-Based Instructional Strategies

Setting Goals & Success Criteria

Make learning goals visible and pair them with concrete success criteria students can self-check.

Evidence:
Locke & Latham (2002) ·
REL Midwest (ERIC open-access, 2018)

• Co-write 2–4 “I can…” criteria; reference them at launch, mid-lesson, and exit.
• Run a 1-minute “criteria check” where students highlight where their work meets/doesn’t.

Teacher Clarity

Organize explanations, examples, and lesson flow so students can follow and act on them.

Evidence:
Fendick (1990) ·
Titsworth et al. (ERIC, 2015)

• Open with a 30-second “map” (Goal → Steps → Proof of learning).
• Model one worked example + one non-example before guided practice.

Related: TeachThought: Assessment

Cues, Questions & Advance Organizers

Activate prior knowledge and preview the structure so new content has hooks.

Evidence:
Mayer (1979) ·
ERIC (1979)

• Start with a 90-second concept map (big nodes only) before instruction.
• Pose 2 essential questions; revisit mid-lesson and at exit.

Scaffolding Instruction

Provide temporary supports (prompts, hints, partial solutions) and fade them as competence grows.

Evidence:
Wood, Bruner & Ross (1976) ·
ERIC (2002 overview)

• Give a 4-step checklist; remove one step each subsequent attempt.
• Sentence starters for draft 1 only; original phrasing required on draft 2.

High Expectations (Warm Demanding)

Communicate belief in every student’s ability and provide credible pathways to meet the bar.

Evidence:
Rosenthal & Jacobson (1968) ·
ERIC (1968)

• Set a visible quality bar (exemplar + single rubric row) and require one revision for all.
• Use growth-focused feedback scripts (“Next step: add a counterexample in ¶2”).

Plan With the Nine Research-Based Categories

Use Marzano’s nine categories to balance clarity, processing, practice, feedback, and transfer across units.

Evidence:
Marzano et al. (2001) ·
McREL (ERIC-indexed report)

• Tag each lesson segment to a category; add one missing category this week.
• Use a PLC template with nine checkboxes during unit planning.

Direct / Explicit Instruction (Rosenshine)

Teach in small steps with clear models, guided practice, frequent CFUs, and cumulative review before independence.

Evidence:
Rosenshine (2012) ·
ERIC (2012)

• Chunk new material into 5-minute bursts with a quick CFU after each.
• “You do a little / I peek a lot”: circulate and prompt during guided practice.

Related: TeachThought: Project-Based Learning

Modeling with Worked Examples

Show complete exemplars (and non-examples), then fade to completion problems and full independence.

Evidence:
Sweller et al. (2006) ·
ERIC (2006)

• Model one full problem; then assign a completion problem with the last step blank.
• Show a non-example; ask students to spot and fix the error.

Guided Practice (Opportunities to Practice)

Provide structured practice with immediate feedback before asking for independent performance.

Evidence:
Rosenshine (2012) ·
ERIC (2012)

• Run “I do → We do → You do” across a single period; pause for quick corrections.
• Use mini-whiteboards for whole-class guided checks and fast feedback.

Deliberate Practice & Spacing

Short, frequent practice with feedback, distributed over time and interleaved with prior content.

Evidence:
Cepeda et al. (2008) ·
ERIC (2012 overview)

• Turn a 20-minute block into two 8-minute bursts with a 2-minute retrieval check.
• Open with 3 spaced “warm-backs” from last week before new content.

Nonlinguistic Representations (Dual Coding)

Pair words with visuals (diagrams, timelines, gestures) so verbal and image traces reinforce each other.

Evidence:
Clark & Paivio (1991) ·
ERIC (2019)

• Require a 30–60s sketch for each new concept.
• Introduce an icon/gesture for key terms and cue students to use them.

Cooperative Learning

Structured peer interaction with shared goals and individual accountability.

Evidence:
Johnson & Johnson (1989) ·
ERIC (1994)

• Assign roles (facilitator, checker, summarizer) + an individual exit slip.
• Give a 60-second “quiet think” before talk so every student brings an idea.

Concept Mapping

Externalize relationships between ideas via labeled connections and hierarchies.

Evidence:
Novak & Gowin (1984) ·
ERIC (2018)

• Give 10 terms + verb list (causes, leads to, contrasts with); require labeled arrows.
• Students write a 2-sentence “pathway” using three nodes.

Reciprocal Teaching

Rotate roles (clarify, question, predict, summarize) to build comprehension through coached dialogue.

Evidence:
Palincsar & Brown (1984) ·
ERIC (1992)

• Run a 10-minute rotation on a short text; swap roles mid-reading.
• Provide role cards; require a 3-sentence group summary at the end.

Related: TeachThought: Questioning & Inquiry

Identifying Similarities & Differences

Compare, classify, or analogize concepts to expose structure and distinctions.

Evidence:
Marzano et al. (2001) ·
ERIC (2010)

• Quick 2×2 matrix (feature A/B vs present/absent) to classify examples.
• One metaphor/analogy per pair capturing the key difference.

Related: TeachThought: Teaching With Analogies

Summarizing & Note-Taking

Distill essential ideas concisely; generative processing supports retention and comprehension.

Evidence:
Hidi & Anderson (1986) ·
ERIC (1999)

• Impose a 12-word summary limit, then expand to 40 words with one quotation.
• Use Cornell notes: add one test question per section before leaving.

Generating & Testing Hypotheses

Make predictions, test them, and revise thinking based on evidence.

Evidence:
Marzano et al. (2001) ·
ERIC (2013)

• Students write a specific prediction and design a 3-step mini-test to check it.
• Require a “claim–evidence–revision” sentence after results.

Comparison Matrix (Protocol)

Use a criteria-by-item grid so students weigh alternatives and justify choices.

Evidence:
Marzano et al. (2001) ·
McREL (ERIC-indexed)

• Provide a 3×3 matrix with criteria in rows; students rate/justify each item.
• End with a forced choice: which is best for X and why (cite two criteria)?

Anticipation Guides

Use brief agree/disagree statements to surface preconceptions and set a purpose for reading.

Evidence:
Buehl (2001) ·
ERIC (2015)

• Create 4 statements tied to misconceptions; students justify pre/post.
• After reading, students flip one stance and cite a specific line or datum.

Low-Threat / Formative Assessment

Frequent checks for understanding, without grading pressure, surface misconceptions early.

Evidence:
Bangert-Drowns, Kulik & Kulik (1991) ·
ERIC (2019)

• Use 2–3 ungraded checks (thumb, mini-whiteboard, 1-question poll) per lesson.
• Exit ticket: “One thing I’m unsure about is…”—address at start of next class.

Detailed / Task-Specific Feedback

Tell students where they are relative to criteria and what to do next—not just a score.

Evidence:
Hattie & Timperley (2007) ·
ERIC (2007)

• Comment with one strength tied to criteria + one precise next step.
• Replace grades on first drafts with a 2-line “next move” note; revise in class.

Related: TeachThought: 13 Concrete Examples of Effective Learning Feedback

Metacognitive Reflection

Guide students to monitor progress, choose strategies intentionally, and revise based on evidence of learning.

Evidence:
Flavell (1979) ·
ERIC (2019)

• Students name the strategy they used and why in one sentence on the work.
• Three-item self-check: “What worked? What didn’t? What I’ll try next.”

Related: TeachThought: 50 Questions That Promote Metacognition

Higher-Level Questioning

Ask open, cognitively demanding prompts that require students to justify, connect, or transform ideas.

Evidence:
Redfield & Rousseau (1981) ·
ERIC (1989)

• Prep three prompts: explain, connect, transform (“How would this change if…?”).
• After an answer, require a follow-up “Because…” sentence or a classmate challenge.

Related: TeachThought: Question Stems for Higher-Level Discussion

Reinforcing Effort & Recognition

Acknowledge students for meeting explicit performance criteria and for effective strategies—not for generic “trying.”

Evidence:
Deci, Koestner & Ryan (1999) ·
ERIC (2000)

• Tie recognition to a posted criterion (e.g., “Meets: includes counterclaim with evidence”).
• Use intermittent shout-outs for effective strategies (“You compared sources before deciding”).

Homework With a Clear Purpose (Later Grades)

Homework is most effective when reinforcing taught material with a clear learning purpose and minimal parental involvement.

Evidence:
Cooper (1989) ·
ERIC (2012)

• Label homework with a purpose tag (“practicing X,” “preparing for Y”).
• Include a 60-second self-check key so students verify process, not just answers.

Inquiry-Based Learning

Students investigate questions or problems through evidence gathering and reasoning.

Evidence:
Hmelo-Silver et al. (2007) ·
ERIC (2014)

• Start with a driving question and a short list of approved sources/tools.
• Checkpoint form: hypothesis → plan → evidence log → next questions.

Related: TeachThought: 20 Questions to Guide Inquiry-Based Learning

Independent Practice

Students apply newly learned skills without scaffolds to build fluency and generalization.

Evidence:
Rosenshine (2012) ·
ERIC (2012)

• Set a fluency goal (correct in a row / within time) and chart progress.
• 3 scaffolded problems → 3 independent problems → 1 reflection line.

Directed Reading–Thinking Activity (DR-TA)

Pause periodically to predict, read, check, and revise; strengthens inference and monitoring.

Evidence:
Stauffer (1969) ·
ERIC (1976)

• Pause every 2–3 paragraphs: predict → read → check → revise.
• Students annotate predictions with ✓ / ✗ and explain any change.

Question–Answer Relationship (QAR)

Teach question types (“Right There,” “Think & Search,” “Author & Me”) so students choose the correct strategy.

Evidence:
Raphael (1982) ·
ERIC (1987)

• Color-code questions: Right There (green), Think & Search (blue), Author & Me (yellow).
• Students must label the QAR type before answering.

Related: TeachThought: Critical Thinking

KWL & Previewing Structures

Activate background knowledge, articulate curiosity, and set a self-guided purpose before reading.

Evidence:
Ogle (1986) ·
ERIC (1992)

• Spend 2 minutes on K/W; revisit L at exit with an evidence-based sentence.
• Build a class “W wall” and assign each student one W to answer by Friday.

Response Notebooks / Journals

Routinely reflect, question, and reorganize ideas in writing to build transfer via self-explanation.

Evidence:
Readence, Moore & Rickelman (2002) ·
ERIC (2003)

• Standing 3-line prompt: “Today I realized… / I’m stuck on… / Next I will…”
• Require one quote or figure referenced in each entry (with page/line).

Individualized Instruction

Differentiate paths, pacing, or supports so students work at the edge of their competence toward common goals.

Evidence:
Bloom (1984) ·
ERIC (1986)

• Offer 2-path choices: Practice A (more modeling) vs Practice B (extension/transfer).
• Create 3 “just-in-time” mini-lessons students can opt into after a self-check.

Related: TeachThought: Teaching & Pedagogy